Culture and Special Education Essay Example for Free

Culture and Special Education Essay In this paper we concern ourselves with the ways in which schools in general and special education procedures in particular tend to not be successful for those of our students who are from a different culture. (While we focus on Canadian Aboriginals, we also extend our thinking to those children who come from different races, ethnicities, socio-economic backgrounds, etc. ) We outline the stories that have brought us to this place. We then go on to suggest that the adoption of different understandings and approaches could lead to the academic success of children from a variety of different cultures and backgrounds. We conclude with some direction for change. In this paper we, two white educators, concern ourselves with the education of those students of Aboriginal descent who are seen by the school system as special. Our concerns are based on the stories we use to understand ourselves and our actions stories of mistold history, socio-political issues, racism, the misuse of science and the ways those stories disadvantage those who are different. Our hope is that we can begin to explore different more hopeful and empowering stories. There are many reasons to be concerned about the existing state of special education, particularly with our Aboriginal students. Currently the following are common; 1. Our special education classes are top-heavy with Aboriginal and disadvantaged students. 2. We tend to focus on the deficits in other children rather than on the possibilities. We could embrace the position of William Glasser (1986): we choose to be whom and what we, and others, believe we are. [1] 3. We do not concern ourselves with the differences brought to school by children from other than the dominant culture. [2] 4. We are asking all small school children to do the pretty much the same thing at pretty much the same time and to meet some arbitrary standard of what they should or should not be able to do. We act despite current research concerning physiology and early childhood experience, which suggests that children are not ready for the same task at the same time. 5. The tests that we give children to determine the reasons for failure at school tasks are fallible and culturally insensitive and subjective. 6. A label tends to freeze a child in the definition attached to the label. 7. We have a tendency to blame the victim or to blame the social background rather than look at ways we can change. Clearly we need to find another way of viewing children and their learning. We are hoping to uncover stories that currently mediate, impair and colonize our special education practices, thereby beginning a dialogue concerning alternative stories of strength, knowing and power. Stories that Get in the Way History Stories Malia Kaniaupuni (2005) tells us how archeologists and historians have accepted a theory of accidental migration from Polynesia to the Hawaiian Islands to explain a 2200-mile voyage on the open seas. This in spite of evidence to the contrary, which makes it clear that the early Polynesian explorers did indeed have the sophisticated system of navigation needed for a planned and successful voyage. Malia Kaniaupuni’s point is that the assumption of a people with no learning, no culture, no anything but maybe good luck, made it possible for colonizers to take on in their own minds the mantle of rescuer. Iseke-Barnes (2005) is also concerned about the misrepresentation of Indigenous history and science. She wants us to challenge those assumptions that the colonizers found a people in need of saving from their own ignorance. Paulo Freire (1971, 1997) has spent many years studying the impact of oppression on the colonized. In the name of saving a backward people from themselves the colonizers were able to perpetuate acts of cultural genocide and worse. The use of this story continues to impact on how the dominant cultures act out their oppression. History is written by the winner, therefore we need to be highly critical of the history we read. While more blatant misrepresentations of the history of Canada are beginning to disappear, the whole story of colonization is not being told or written or disseminated. Instead, we are still trying to save lost Aboriginal souls. History stories mediate, impair and colonize special education practice, which we will illustrate by describing a socio-political and a scientific rigor story. A Socio-Political Story This is a story of the purpose of education. We suppose schools are places where children are educated. But what are children educated to do or be? Gitlin (2005) gives a disturbing answer to this question: [Public education is] not intended to fill the young of the species with knowledge and awaken their intelligence †¦Nothing could be further from the truth. The aim †¦is simply to reduce as many individuals as possible to the safe level, to breed and train a standardized citizenry, to put down dissent and originality. That is its aim in the United States†¦ and that is its aim everywhere else. (p. 22) Many may disagree with this disturbing answer, suggesting that school graduates, for the most part, go on to become productive citizens. But citizenry becomes problematic when referring to Aboriginal peoples – it seems clear that, for the most part, people of Aboriginal heritage do not go on to become productive citizens within the dominant culture. A lack of successful citizenry by Aboriginal peoples seems to justify special education programs that are top heavy with Aboriginal students. But success is politicized. Skovsmose (2005) outlines how schools practice both classic[3] and progressive[4] racism. Such practice allows us as educators not to have to take any responsibility for the failure of the child, as clearly the child brings the cause for his or her weak performance into school. Therefore: Many deficiency theories (theories of the deprived child) follow the approach of racism in explaining away the socio-political dimension of school performances, by privatizing and personalizing the causes of such performance. (p. 5) So: The epistemic interpretation of learning obstacle is not the only one possible. However, processes of exclusion in education can be dressed up in such a way that their political dimension becomes hidden and ignored. It could appear that exclusion is not imposed on students. Instead, exclusion may appear as a consequence of some students so-called low achievement. (p. 4) He goes on to say that this leads to a particular way of organizing teaching/learning processes in ways that prevent students from acting like learners. In other words our story leads to actions that support the story. A Scientific Story A scientifically rigorous story dominates special education practice. The story, in brief, is that learning disability can be attributed to biological and environmental factors. Current models of abnormality are often based on the premise that a person will have a biological disposition toward a disorder, but that the presence of a disorder will also depend on environmental factors (Wortman, Loftus, Weaver, 1999). Brain function consists of biological processes involving genetic tendencies, chemical levels and electrical activity. Normal brain function can be delineated according to normal biological processes. In other words, we assume that learning disability is at least partially caused by excessive deviation from a normal range of biological processes. These biological processes can be measured in terms of genetic profiles, chemical levels (e. g. , hormones found in blood) and electrical levels in the brain. Hence, it is assumed that learning disability can be measured using physiological properties of the brain. These ideas are supported by a dominant scientific culture, where scientific evidence generates facts that cannot be refuted. Special education for children of Aboriginal heritage has been colonized by this scientific rigor story. In schools, we identify learning disabilities as follows: A teacher identifies a student who appears to be struggling, and refers the student to a team of specialists. The specialist tests, diagnoses, labels and sets out a remediation program. The teacher implements the program. It seems like a perfectly reasonable system of trying to help those with disabilities, based on scientifically rigorous knowledge. But the story is flawed in three ways. First, the story of scientific rigor is told by a dominant culture. The colonizers write the books of knowledge, thereby attempting to establish without doubt what is true and what evidence is required to make a truth claim. Culturally laden epistemology certainty invades special education. For example, based on research literature generated by the dominant scientific culture, there is currently little scientific evidence to support a biological cause or disposition for most disorders of the brain (Wortman, et. al. , 1999). It is assumed that biological roots exist that accurately captures a disability label. There is no scientific rigor in labels. The assumptions have pervaded special education and are taken as scientific fact. This is a writing of special education knowledge by colonizers. Second, this scientific rigor story is based on behaviour and biology, while special education practice is based solely on behavior. Teachers, resource teachers, special education consultants and school psychologists base their labels on observing behaviour. Medical technologies are not used to detect genetic make-up, chemical levels or electrical activity in the brain, generating a diagnosis based on deviations from a normal range. We assume that our interpretation of behavior correctly identifies mental disability. But as we are caught inside stories that get in the way, we should not accept our interpretations of behaviour without question. Third, this scientific rigor story is enacted in contradictory ways. To see the contradiction, we need to set the stage by describing physiological and behavioural evidence generated by scientific research. Studies of the physiology of the forebrain and hindbrain have shown that the slow processing of learning cannot occur during a moment of fear (Kalat, 1988). Based on this physiological evidence, educators might wonder about school and classroom environment. If a child is afraid, or afraid to learn, then they will not learn. Researchers have found connections between emotional states and learning (Zimbardo Gerrig, 1996). Evidence of a connection between learning and emotion is accumulating to such an extent that there is a branch of psychological and educational research concerning emotional intelligence (EQ). For example, researchers have found correlations between EQ and ability to learn (Goleman, 1998). It is concluded that emotions should be nurtured as part of intellectual growth. Moving from physiology to behaviour, psychologists have found evidence to support a strong connection between emotion and behaviour. Notable among this research is Glasser’s (1986) claim that as learners we need to have the mental image of ourselves doing that task, we need to know we can do it. For children if we firmly believe that a child could do something and bring them to the same belief, then learning previously thought impossible takes place. We suspect other teachers, based on their personal experiences, have similar beliefs concerning the potential of children to learn. Coupling the physiological and behavioural evidence above suggests that a label is as much responsible for a child’s learning success as any other biological or environmental factor. The stage has been sent for noticing a contradiction in the scientific rigor story within special education. We are colonized to believe the scientific truth that disability is biological and behavioural. Hence, we label disability in hopes of solving the problem. But the same scientific culture generates the truth that labeling at least partially causes the behaviors associated with a disability. We label behaviour, not noticing that our stories mediate, impair and colonize our interpretations of behaviour. Conceptualizing Change There is no doubt in our minds that we are working with the best of intentions. We are not setting out to further disadvantage those who come to us from already established positions of disadvantage impoverished backgrounds, different cultures, stressed families. We are doing the best we can with the knowledge and resources we have. What gets in our way is lack of imagination. We assume that the way we do things is the way to do things. We may be comfortable with some tinkering. But we see ourselves as educated people who are neither racist nor biased, and who are working in a good system, but with damaged and/or deficient people – this story concludes that systemic changes are not required. We have a rigid educational system that states that success is measured in yearly doses and in each of those years students are expected to master a particular body of knowledge. It is an expected linear progression to success. Certain cultural imperatives are in place so that children from the dominant culture will more likely be successful. If you are not successful you are treated. The process of treatment takes away from your sense of competence as a learner, particularly in the school setting. Here we want to become specific. The focus of this paper is on the teaching of Aboriginal learners, and what stops us from being successful. The linear model used in our factory model schools gets in our way. The assumption that we have the one right way gets in our way. History gets in our way. Racism gets in our way. Scientism gets in our way. We are not noticing alternative stories. Previously we wrote (Betts Bailey, in press) about using a different metaphor for education, one that was not linear. We suggested that we use the metaphor of fractal geometry (and all that means in terms of quantum mechanics and chaos theory). In fractal geometry the smallest part is a reflection of the whole. For example a twig is really a little tree. In Aboriginal cosmology the basic unit is the Medicine Wheel, by definition a circular model so nothing is more important than anything else, all is of equal value. Each member of the community is an essential part of the whole. Earth, flora, fauna, human are all part of the circle of life required for existence. Education was a part of the whole, an on-going component of life (Courtney, 1986, Graveline, 1998, Regnier, 1995). We illustrated that a non-linear and holistic story of education was tell-able within ultra-modern Western thinking and within the ancient wisdom of Aboriginal cosmologies. We saw with alternative stories. To see education for children, all of whom are special, rather than special education, as non-linear and holistic seems a place to begin. We also see that a starting part is not enough to catalyze change. It is clear to us that the foreground must be that Aboriginal peoples have been and are oppressed and colonized. We do not need to go into the history of the subjugation of an entire race practiced over the years by the European colonizers. We all know the steps that were taken to destroy any vestige of the civilization that was in place at the time of contact. We get confused as to what to do about it now. After all, it was our ancestors, not us. [5] We see what we are doing now in schools as an extension of that destructive process. Our governments are slowly beginning to allow for the full participation of Aboriginals in our world. But in many small and highly destructive ways we continue to contribute to the marginalization of that population. The world of special education is one place where we continue to do so. Knowing that a high proportion of the identified special population is Aboriginal, we continue to act as we always have, even in the face of evidence that the actions we take are not effective. Paulo Freire (1971) suggests that it takes several generations for a culture to overcome the impact of oppression. Certainly we can see the truth of that statement as we watch many colonized peoples re-learn how to care for and govern themselves. In Canada, Aboriginal peoples are slowly, and over generations, learning how to be who they are, and to be successful in both cultures. This will not happen quickly, but it will happen surely. In the meantime there is no question that our Aboriginal population is dealing with serious problems and some of those impact on the ability of their children to learn, especially using the mores of another culture. Our typical reaction as white educators is to want the Aboriginals to change. All would be right if only kids would come to school and on time. All would be well if their parents would stop drinking. All would be well if so much money wasnt being squandered on band council trips to Las Vegas. All of which may be factual, but does not excuse us from doing what we can to better the situation for the special children. The current reality of an oppressed population does not give us the right to blame the victim. Rather, as Skovsmose points out: †¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"meanings of learning,† â€Å"meanings for students,† and â€Å"each students meaning production† must be investigated and interpreted with reference to the dispositions of the student (including their background and foreground). Meaning production takes place in terms of what the students see as their opportunities, including motives, perspectives, hope and aspirations (p. 8). Therefore in conceptualizing change we of the dominant culture need to place that conceptualization in hands other than ours, in the hands of those who know and honour their unique history and ways of being, who can best find the organic ways of empowering themselves and their children. Having said that we do have some notions of what white educators can do. 1. Overcome our own racism. Get facts and information. Use our intelligence and face ourselves. 2. Accept the conditions. Things are as they are. Oppression has happened. It will take, according to the Bible and past experience, seven generations for the sins of the fathers to be expiated. In the meantime we have been given the task of teaching the children of oppression. What changes can we make to be more successful at that task? 3. Resist labels. Resist the push to find something wrong with the victim, rather change how we do things, how we approach the task. 4. Give our special kids the confidence to learn. Teachers are in positions of authority. Children really do think we know what we are talking about. If we consistently make it clear to children that they are capable of succeeding at the tasks we give them, sooner or later they will believe us. But first we have to genuinely believe that what we say is true. We cannot be faking it. From there we need to practice power-with rather than power-over. [6] 5. Thus we give our special kids the power to learn. We work with them so that they are taking charge of their own learning; we give them agency. This is a difficult task for us to undertake. It means giving up some control, it means not taking the linear approach that gives us comfort and assurance through its familiarity. But difficult is not impossible. 6. Above all be patient. We are not going to get it perfect ever, but we will get better at working with rather than doing to, and the students will get better at taking responsibility and determining what they need to be successful. [7] 7. Then celebrate when a child tells you that they can finally do it because no one ever told them they could before. Maybe the best suggestion we found came from a Native Hawaiian educator, a member of a population that is also dealing with the fall-out of oppression. Malia Kaniaupuni (2005) strongly advocates for using the heritage and knowledge of the children’s culture: As others before me have done, I end by calling for a new framework that brings to the fore Native Hawaiian strengths that have been too long misinterpreted, misrecognised, and undervalued. (p. 32). In his work he makes a convincing argument for strengths-based education, for using a structure that by definition builds on the knowledge and strengths the children bring into the classroom and at the same time begins to change the socio-political conditions. First lets be clear that by strengths based, I do not mean glossing over problems in favour of a rosy picture. Strengths-based research, in my view, begins with the premise of creating social change. In contrast to the expert-driven, top-down approach assumed by deficit models, it means treating the subjects of study as actors within multi-layered contexts and employing the multiple strengths of individuals, families and communities to overcome or prevent difficulties. It is also about empowerment, where the purpose of strengths-based research and evaluation is to benefit the people involved in the study by giving them voice, insight, and political power. †¦ As such it means empowering communities. (p. 35) It would seem obvious that such could be done here for those children who are the fruits of colonial oppression. The work of understanding, telling different stories and taking action continues. Conclusion We are not naive. We know that the process of labeling is the result of the need for funding. We know that with classrooms of more than 20 that kind of individual attention is very difficult. We know that you will be surrounded by administrators, other teachers, parents, even the special children who will tell you to get the testing done and treatment program in place. We know that in the process of de-colonization the oppressed can take on the qualities of the oppressor. But we can become resistors, working with a sure knowledge that we know what doesnt work and that it is way past time to try something radically different. It is clear that the past hundred years or so of schooling directed at Aboriginals has not been a big success. Indeed rather than educating Aboriginals to be successful in the dominant culture, we have an abysmal history of abuse and cultural genocide through education. Many of the abuses of the past are in the past. However, with kindness and deep concern we are using the special education system to continue to marginalize and discredit a large number of Aboriginal children[8]. We are suggesting that maybe things could be better. References Bishop, A. (2002). Becoming an ally: Breaking the cycle of oppression. Fernwood Publishing; Halifax Bloom, B. (1981). All our children learning: A primer for parents, teachers and other educators. McGraw-Hill: New York. Courtney, R. (1986). Island of remorse: Amerindian education in the contemporary world. Curriculum Inquiry, 16(1), pp. 43-65. Freire, P. (1971). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Herder and Herder: New York Freire, P. (1998). Pedagogy of Freedom. Rowman Littlefield: New York. Gitlin, A. (2005). Inquiry, imagination, and the search for a deep politic. Educational Researcher 34 (3), pp. 15-24. Glasser, W. (1986). Control theory in the classroom. Harper and Rowe: New York. Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York. Bantam Books. Graveline, F. J. (1998). Circle works: Transforming Eurocentric consciousness:Halifax: Fernwood. Iseke-Barnes. J. (2005). Misrepresentation of Indigenous history and science: Public broadcasting, the internet, and education. Discourses: studies on the cultural politics of education 26 (2), pp. 149-165. Kalat, J. (1988). Biological psychology (3rd. ed). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Malia Kanaiaupuni, S. (2005). Kakalai Ku Kanaka: A call for strengths-based approaches from a Native Hawaiian perspective. Educational Researcher 34(5), pp. 32-37 Regnier, R. (1995). The sacred circle: An Aboriginal approach to healing education at an Urban high school. In M. Battiste J. Barman (Eds. ), First nations Education: The Circle Unfolds (pp. 313-330. (Vancouver: UBC Press) Skovsmose, O. (2005), Foregrounds and politics of learning obstacles. For the learning of mathematics 25 (1), pp. 4-10. Wortman,C. , Loftus, E. , Weaver, C. (1999). Psychology (5th ed. ). New York: Harper Collins College. Zimbardo, P. Gerrig, R. (1996). Psychology and life. New York: Harper Collins College. [1] Bloom (1981) believes that the intellectual potential of all students is pretty much the same. The difference is in history. Malia Kaniaupuni (2005) is concerned that if you focus on a deficit-based approach to education then you often miss the expertise that exists in communities and families, viewing instead outside experts as the only ones capable of fixing our problems. [2] Including Aboriginal, Black, Hispanic, recent immigrants and the poor. [3] Classic racism assumes that the obstacles to learning are to be found in the child. [4] Progressive racism assumes that any weakness in the child is the result of social background. [5] In July 2005, the descendants of the colonizer who razed an Indian village at Clyaquot Sound returned to the village to apologize for the deeds of their forefathers. [6] Anne Bishop in Becoming an Ally: Breaking the Cycle of Oppression (2002), explicates the difference between power-over and power-with, although we tend to think the concept is somewhat self-explanatory [7] Children also fall into the patterns of self-excuse – I have already been told that I cant read so why would I work at it. Dont you know I cant do that. [8] We do believe that this is the case with all children designated special needs. We may not have the answers but we are pretty clear that we do have a considerable problem that we are not prepared to look at squarely.

Harlem Renaissance And The Cotton Club Film Studies Essay

Harlem Renaissance And The Cotton Club Film Studies Essay Cotton Club as an example of Jazz scene during the Harlem Renaissance in the movie The Cotton Club by Francis Ford Coppola Even though the Harlem Renaissance ended almost 80 years ago and its timeline is almost the same as the prohibition, it still seems to have an incredible impact on American society and culture as such. What happened during those 13 years was a sort of revolution in every field of life in upper Manhattan. It would be almost impossible to name and enumerate every artist, musician, politician responsible for the Harlem Renaissance. What is the more important is the fact it was a moment in history when African American culture was able to express itself as separate from mainstream American culture of that time. Jazz became a powerful tool of defining Harlem identity; as Patrick Burke claims for African Americans interest in jazz was mixed with a desire to think and act differently. Harlem jazz musicians needed a place to practice and perform and the Cotton Club proved to play an important role in creating an atmosphere of artistic and intellectual growth during the jazz era, as depicted in the Cotton Club movie by Francis Ford Coppola. Francois Weil, the author of A History of New York, defines the Harlem Renaissance as the first African American movement in the modern history; the movement that influenced every aspect of cultural life, such as literature, music, art etc. Harlem in the 1920s was the place to be. It became what the Greenwich Village was in the downtown, mainly a place of cultural revival; an oasis to artist and intellectuals of all sorts. Harlems cultural revival at that time was called The New Negro Renaissance, a term that defined everything that was new, modern and exciting. The new movement was focused around black writers, like Zora Neale Hurston, Countee Cullen, Langston Hughes and jazz musicians, like Duke Ellington or Cab Calloway. In the 1920s, what was called Harlem stretched from 130th to 145th street, from Madison Avenue to Eighth Avenue. What became essential in Harlem Renaissance was the music; jazz, or rather ragtime as it should be called was one of the first examples of interaction between white and black music. Ragtime, as a genre was a combination of European and American influences. Its name comes from the ragged rhythm. Due to the prosperity of the 1920s, New York became the new capital of entertainment. Prohibition did not stop New Yorkers craze for nightlife, however, they had to search for fun somewhere else, in the speakeasies- illegal bars serving alcohol, mostly located in the basements. One of the most famous speakeasies was Onyx Club, which was a venue for both musicians and New Yorkers in search of fun and adventure. Patrick Burke, the author of Oasis of Swing, explains that what attracted both musicians and audience to that kind of places was the image of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ jazz as an authentic, immediate form of personal expression. Speakeasies were often located in private houses or in the basements of official clubs. There was a wide variety of speakeasies, ranging from the dà ©cor and the style to the clientele and the prices of alcohol. Most of them were located in the downtown. When the parties were over on Times Square after midnight, the night had just begun in Harlem. For those, who were craving for more adventurous nightlife, Harlem was the Promised Land; it was home for famous clubs like, just to mention some, The Cotton Club, Connies Inn and Small Paradise. The Cotton Club was the place where the greatest jazz musicians, like Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong or Cab Calloway, performed. Interestingly enough, The Cotton Club, was a place for white customers only. African Americans were allowed on the stage as performers, dancers, musicians but not as guests of the club. As Watson claims, the Cotton Club was the largest, featured the most extravagant shows, charged the highest prices, and most strictly enforced the color line. Strangely enough, thanks to its policy, the club was seen as one of the best places for white New Yorkers to be immersed into black culture. The Cotton Club attracted white clientele in many ways, for example by serving fancy food, the prices were unreasonably high, the dancers were young and pretty; it all created the atmosphere of a place for elites. In the heart of Harlem, The Cotton Club was a venue run by white owners for white audience. The Cotton Club was quite an extraordinary place where not only did white and black clash, but also other groups, like high and low classes, mob bosses and artist. Furthermore, the club was attracting its clients by the creating the sense of forbidden adventure. On top of that, illegal alcohol was just another factor that created the clubs myth. The Cotton Club movie was directed by Francis Ford Coppola in 1984. Coppola, whos regarded as one of the most important American filmmakers, had been renowned for Apocalypse Now and The Godfather trilogy. Growing up in New York, although he was born in Detroit but his family moved to New York when he was a child, he actually made the city something more than just a background for the stories he depicted in his movies, the city itself became the vital part of his movies, almost like another main character, for example in the Godfather, where he depicted the life of Italian tenants living in New York City. The Cotton Club was produced by his own studio, Zoetrope Studio, which meant for Coppola even greater financial responsibility in case the movie did not become an instant success. Not only did it fail in commercial sense, but also it did not meet the audience and the movie critics expectations. The story is set in Harlem, New York City, primarily in 1928. The main character is white cornet player, Michael Dwyer called Dixie, starred by Richard Gere, who incidentally saves Dutch Schulz, starred by James Remar, life and since then Dixies life changes completely. This night is a turning point for Dixie; at the same club where he rescues Dutch, he meets Vera Cicero, starred by Diane Lane, a woman he completely falls in love with. In addition, Vera turns out to be Dutchs mistress. Unfortunately, Dixie has no idea that the person he rescued is a mob boss, and this very fact makes Dixie mingled into the underground world of gangsters, bootleggers and speakeasies. As the story develops, other characters appear on the screen, for example Williamss brothers, two black tap dancers and this is the very first moment when the story moves into The Cotton Club. From now on, the lives of black and white characters are connected via the club itself. What strikes viewers attention most is segregation at the Cotton Club. The black performers are allowed to use only the backdoor, leaving the front door to white audience only. This fact is easily understood when it turns out that the owner of the club is white man, Owney Madden, starred by Bob Hoskins, who claims to be a businessman rather than a mobster and whose main concern is how much he can earn by selling illegal liquor at the club. Dixie takes the screening test and gets engaged in the movie industry, which means moving to Hollywood and leaving New York and his beloved Vera. He takes his chance, seeing this as an opportunity to escape from his problems with Dutch. Out of a sudden, Dixie becomes a movie star. Meanwhile, the mob war in Harlem starts. To make things worse, the prices of stocks crash on Wall Street. The Great Depression does not seem to affect Vera Cicero, who left by Dixie, opens her own night club, Veras Club, for whites only on Broadway. Out of the sudden, Dixie comes back from Hollywood as a celebrity, finding his brother Vinnie guilty of killing innocent children in the street. The stock market crash in 1929 and the mob wars in 1930 are presented to build the dark and gloomy atmosphere of inevitable doom. In other words, the good careless days of jazz age are over and what is about to happen is like a harsh wake up after an all-night party. Talking about black characters in the movie, they are presented as a sort of background for white main characters. There is another love affair in the movie, between black tap dancer, Dalbert, called Sandman, Williams, starred by ,Gregory Hines, and a singer, Lila, starred by Lonette McKee, whose tragedy is that she comes from a mixed background, of a white mother and black father, which makes her black for whites and white for blacks. Lila is a star at the Cotton Club, dreaming about career on a Broadway. Thanks to Vera Cicero, her dreams come true, as Lila is white enough to perform at the Veras Club. The black jazz scene in the Cotton Club is depicted in two ways. First of all, there are historic names, such as Duke Ellington or Cab Calloway and fictional names, such as Williams Brothers. As far as historic names are concerned, the jazz scene in the Cotton Club can be divided into two phases: The Duke Ellingtons era, till 1930, and Cab Calloways era, since 1931. The times when Cab was the host at the Cotton Club mark the line of a different sort of entertainment; the show was more varied, there were more dancers, feathers, the pace was faster, because the audience was more varied. 1931 is important in the movie for two reasons; first because it is a date when the concerts are broadcast live from Cotton Club, second, it is a time when black audience is allowed into the club. As far as fictional characters are concerned, the major black characters are two brothers, Clay and Dalbert Williams, who want to succeed at the Cotton Club as tap dancers. When they finally make it there, they start competing with each other and this rivalry leads to a split between them. The conflict is not an endless one and Williams brothers realize that what made them went separate ways is meaningless, and what really matters is the fact they are flesh and blood. The scene when sing and tap together to the Crazy Rhythm is one of the best scenes in the entire movie. In addition, the second best scene in the whole movie is a violent scene of Dutchs murder is accompanied by Sandmans tap dance in the background. The evening show at the Cotton Club is depicted in the movie as a sort of a variety show. The stage in the shape of a horse hoof is located right in the center, surrounded by the customers tables. First, there female dancers enter the stage; young and attractive black girls chosen to attract mostly the male clientele. At the back of the stage there is a black jazz band accompanying the dancers. Secondly, there is a ballet performance or a singer solo accompanied by the orchestra. Next there is a tap dance, like Williams brothers, who dance synchronically to the rhythm of the music. The club is presented as a meeting spot for celebrities as well, for example when Dixie meets Gloria Swanson, the movie star. The show changes pace so that the audience can talk eat and enjoy it without paying attention all the time to what is happening on the stage. The genre of this movie is a crime story combined with love story. The crime story part is most evident when at the beginning and the end of the movie when the Dutchs opponents try to kill him and when Dixies brother, who became a gangster, incidentally shots kids on the street. The love story part is the dangerous, erotic and highly emotional relationship between Vera Cicero and Dixie Dwyer, the best example is the passionate tango scene where Vera slaps Dixie, who slaps her back. Their romance has to be a secret; otherwise they would get killed by Dutch. This tension leads to the inevitable conflict between Dutch and Dixie, which is the climax of the story, hence the secret about the love affair is revealed. The Cotton Club movies strength lies in meticulous preparation to recreate the atmosphere of jazz age; as a matter of fact, the interior design and art deco details are impressive and take the viewers back to the famous club in the late 1920s.However, the movie has some flaws. First of all, it is not a tribute to black Harlem artists who were responsible for a cultural revival of that time. As Johnson points out, the movie of that title should be focused on indomitability of segregated black artists who were able to lose themselves in ecstasies of escapist jazz songs and dance. Secondly, the movie proves to be a crime story rather than a musical. Thirdly, black artists are displayed as minor characters, whereas all the glory and attention go to the white protagonists, especially white jazz musician Dixie Dwyer and femme fatale Vera Cicero. The Cotton Club as an example of a nightclub was responsible for cultural revival in Harlem. Even though being responsible for segregation in Harlem, the club proved to be the place where many talented artists could perform and become famous overnight. It was the ultimate place where white audience could become familiar with Afro-American culture, for example by listening to Duke Ellingtons orchestra play jazz in the club. Furthermore, The Cotton Club was more than a jazz club; it was a scene for tap dancers, performers, singers, and other artists to show broader audience their work. In this way, The Cotton Club might be called the meeting place of white New Yorkers and African-American Harlem residents. The Great Depression brought about the end of phenomena called the Harlem Renaissance. The majority of clubs were closed; significant artists abandoned Harlem and moved to other states or headed for Europe. The great cultural revival was over. In addition, the end of Harlem Renaissance is marked with the end of prohibition. The nightlife lost its seductive glamour; the speakeasies ceased to be the meeting spots. Stock market crash had a bigger impact on Harlem than anyone would expect; everything seemed to be falling apart. The Cotton Club and Connies In were open during the great depression. What changed was the number of white clients increasing. The repeal of prohibition seemed to have more impact on Harlem nightlife than the depression itself.

Magic realism as post-colonialist device in Midnights Children Essay

Magic realism as post-colonialist device in Midnight's Children Magic realism in relation to the post-colonial and Midnight's Children 'The formal technique of "magic realism,"' Linda Hutcheon writes, '(with its characteristic mixing of the fantastic and the realist) has been singled out by many critics as one of the points of conjunction of post-modernism and post-colonialism' (131). Her tracing the origins of magic realism as a literary style to Latin America and Third World countries is accompanied by a definition of a post-modern text as signifying a change from 'modernism's ahistorical burden of the past': it is a text that 'self-consciously reconstruct[s] its relationship to what came before' (131). The post-modern is linked by magic realism to 'post-colonial literatures [which] are also negotiating....the same tyrannical weight of colonial history in conjunction with the past' (131). Before discussing magic realism in Midnight's Children, a brief definition of the term "post-colonialism"as I intend to use it in this essay will aid the clarification of the links made between Hutcheon's theory and the following analysis of Rushdie's text. Ania Loomba argues that post-colonialism is a loose term. She notes that the prefix "post"....implies an "aftermath" in two senses - temporal, as in coming after, and ideological, as in supplanting. It is the second implication which critics of the term have found contestable: if the inequities of colonial rule have not been erased, it is perhaps premature to proclaim the demise of colonialism. A country may be both postcolonial (in the sense of being formally independent) and neo-colonial (in the sense of remaining economically and/or culturally dependant) at the same time. (7) .. ...Helen Tiffin, eds. The Post-colonial Studies Reader. London: Routledge, 1995. Durix, Jean-Pierre. "Salman Rushdie: Interview." Kunapipi4.2 (1982): 17 - 26. Hutcheon, Linda. "Circling the Downspout of Empire." Ashcroft, Bill et al., 130 - 5. Loomba, Ania.Colonialism/Postcolonialism. London: Routledge, 1998. Mishra, Vijay. "The Texts of Mother India." After Europe.Ed. Stephen Slemon and Helen Tiffin. Sydney: Dangaroo Press, 1989. 119-37. Monaco, James, ed. The Virgin International Encyclopedia of Film. London: Virgin, 1992. Pattayanak, Chandrabhanu. "Interview with Salman Rushdie." Literary Criterion 18.3 (1983): 19 - 22. Rushdie, Salman. Midnight's Children. London: Vintage, 1995. Said, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism. London: Vintage, 1994. Slemon, Stephen. "Magic Realism as Post-Colonial Discourse". Canadian Literature 116 (1988): 9 - 24.

A Sense of Proportion Essay -- British Empire, Conflict, War

More English soldiers died in the Great War than in any other British Empire conflict. Under the best of circumstances, this would have been a difficult burden to bear. Moreover, the manner of fighting shattered all romantic notions of noble and gallant warfare - there is nothing noble or gallant about trench warfare or poison gas. Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway is a novel that speaks to belated trauma and the cruelty of failing to face its realities. Much of this sentiment is expressed by the futile struggles of Septimus Smith, a psychologically maimed soldier who has returned from the Western Front. And, while feeling incapable of love contributes to Septimus’s demise, the immediate cause is the intensely evil conduct demonstrated by his doctor, Sir William Bradshaw. Septimus suffers from both a frozen heart and a stricken soul. Since his return from the war , now married for five years to Rezia from Milan, his life has been increasingly drab and unfulfilling, struggling as always to make sense of things, but without real success, except for some sporadic moments of clarity and self understanding. His mind and heart remain captives of his war sufferings, which he never really rises above. His affliction is ever-present and all encompassing regardless of where he happens to be or what he happens to be doing. Even his relationship with his wife appears to be null and non-existent, content as he is, he appears: â€Å"to talk to himself, to talk to a dead man, on the seat over there† (65). Septimus’s shell-shocked condition deteriorates so much in his postwar setting: â€Å"he descends another step into the pit†¦he dropped his head on his hands. Now he had surrendered; now other people must help him† (90). Dr. Holmes, a kindly, amia... ... gone to Sir William for a consultation. Her earlier experience with Sir William now connects her to Septimus and also validates the Smith’s fears in dealing with Sir William. Sir William, for Clarissa, is a messenger of terrible news. â€Å"Oh! Thought Clarissa, in the middle of my party, here’s death, she thought† (183). Sir William is for her a sinister and menacing force, and the sight of him â€Å"curls her up† (182). She recognizes him as an â€Å"extraordinary able† (183) doctor, but â€Å"yet to her obscurely evil, without sex or lust, extremely polite to women, but capable of some indescribable outrage – forcing your soul, that was it†(184). In Septimus, Clarissa not only sees her own mortality, but also feels a fleeting and fragile human existence which questions sin, guilt, evil, death, and redemption. Sir William is clearly the novel’s metaphor for evil par excellence.

Analysis of Articles Opposing American Aid to Columbia :: Government

Analysis of Articles Opposing American Aid to Columbia In â€Å"Are We ‘Salvadorizing’ Colombia?†, Garry M. Leech claims that the current situation in Colombia is a replicate description of Salvador in the 1980’s. He explains how the Clinton Administration imitated Ronal Regan’s Administration during the 1980s. â€Å"Plan Colombia: A Closer Look†, also by Garry M. Leech, claims that the aid given to Colombia by the US government will not â€Å"end Colombia’s civil war, retrieve the nation’s economy nor put the narco-traffickers out of business†. The $1.3 billion aid package is divide, not to benefit the Colombian people but rather benefit the Colombian’s political and economic elite. In this essay, I will analyze this two academic articles relative to the current political situation in Colombia and its direct relation with the United States’ Agency for International Development (USAID). Garry M. Leech is very detailed when pointing out evidence to support his claims. He points out, in â€Å"Are We ‘Salvadorizing’ Colombia?†, that during the 1980s the Regan Administration used the Cold War to justify its support to the Salvadoran government; while, the Clinton Administration used cocaine to justify its support to the Colombian government. According to this article, the threat of drug trade in the US should not be confused with the current civil war in Colombia. He supports these arguments with historical evidence by stating that this civil war began as a fight for the repressive Colombian Government during the 1950s; meanwhile, the drug war began with the boom of cocaine in the 1970s. This evidence is again used in â€Å"Plan Colombia: A Closer Look† to support Leech’s claim that â€Å"eliminating the violence related to drug trade will do little to solve the underlying political, social, and economical problems that have been the real cause of all the violence that has occurred throughout Colombian history.† Leech assumes that the modern reader is aware of the misconceptions caused by the fear of communism during the Cold War. He relates this with the Colombian case, trying to sympathize with the reader, and making them believe that it is wrong approach to fight the drug war. Another important claim mentioned is the relation between the Colombian military and the paramilitaries; therefore, the indirect relation with drug trade and human rights violation. In â€Å"Plan Colombia: A Closer Look†, he states that 80% of the USAID package is going to the Colombian military and police force.

Work

When analyzing a book, each point you make must have four points: Statement – you make a point Evidence – you include a quote (something from the text) which supports your statement Analysis – explain how the quote you chose proves your statement Is true Link ? explain how all of this answers the question S – Michael Morgue uses the technique of narrative voice effectively to portray the horrors and futility of war. He does this by showing us the war from the point of view of the horse, Joey. This shows us what the war was like for both the British and the Germans in an unbiased way.E -â€Å"l was busying myself at tearing the last of this away when I saw, out of the corner of my eye, a man In a grey uniform clamber out of the trenches†¦ A small, helmeted figure In a flapping khaki greatcoat climbed up onto no man's land. † A This helps us to understand that none of the men were horrible. They are described and recognized by their uniforms and nothing else. There are no differences between the men apart from their uniforms. L – This shows us the horrors and futility of war as these men were made to fight and did not know what they were fighting for.They were not angry at one another or prepared for war. Try to use this example and write your own version of this paragraph. This format Is used for all of your paragraphs, the Information you give Is the only thing that changes s technique of narrative voice show horror and futility of war Joeys first hand experience First person narrative shows things as they happen Choose one of the following quotes: â€Å"There were wounded everywhere – on stretchers, on crutches, in open ambulances, men cried and fell to the ground, and horses reared and screamed in agony of fear ND pain.The ground erupted on either side of me, throwing horses and riders clear into the air. The shells whined and roared overhead, and every explosion seemed like an earthquake to us. † à ¢â‚¬Å"It was as I staggered out of one such crater that I lumbered into an invisible coil of barbed wire that first snagged and then trapped my foreleg. As I kicked out wildly to free myself, I felt the barbs tearing into my foreleg† â€Å"l saw the grey soldiers ahead of us raise their rifles and heard the death rattle of a machine gun † â€Å"Blind terror drove me on† â€Å"We looked back down the hill at the battle-field. Work When analyzing a book, each point you make must have four points: Statement – you make a point Evidence – you include a quote (something from the text) which supports your statement Analysis – explain how the quote you chose proves your statement Is true Link ? explain how all of this answers the question S – Michael Morgue uses the technique of narrative voice effectively to portray the horrors and futility of war. He does this by showing us the war from the point of view of the horse, Joey. This shows us what the war was like for both the British and the Germans in an unbiased way.E -â€Å"l was busying myself at tearing the last of this away when I saw, out of the corner of my eye, a man In a grey uniform clamber out of the trenches†¦ A small, helmeted figure In a flapping khaki greatcoat climbed up onto no man's land. † A This helps us to understand that none of the men were horrible. They are described and recognized by their uniforms and nothing else. There are no differences between the men apart from their uniforms. L – This shows us the horrors and futility of war as these men were made to fight and did not know what they were fighting for.They were not angry at one another or prepared for war. Try to use this example and write your own version of this paragraph. This format Is used for all of your paragraphs, the Information you give Is the only thing that changes s technique of narrative voice show horror and futility of war Joeys first hand experience First person narrative shows things as they happen Choose one of the following quotes: â€Å"There were wounded everywhere – on stretchers, on crutches, in open ambulances, men cried and fell to the ground, and horses reared and screamed in agony of fear ND pain.The ground erupted on either side of me, throwing horses and riders clear into the air. The shells whined and roared overhead, and every explosion seemed like an earthquake to us. † à ¢â‚¬Å"It was as I staggered out of one such crater that I lumbered into an invisible coil of barbed wire that first snagged and then trapped my foreleg. As I kicked out wildly to free myself, I felt the barbs tearing into my foreleg† â€Å"l saw the grey soldiers ahead of us raise their rifles and heard the death rattle of a machine gun † â€Å"Blind terror drove me on† â€Å"We looked back down the hill at the battle-field. Work Generation Gap When younger workers are hired in the same department as older workers, the results can be frustrating or rewarding. What makes the difference is how management decides to blend the workforces. The 80 million Generation Y workers, called millennial, who were born after 1977 bring a host of talents to the office. They generally are skilled at hands-on, experiential learning and gain skills by attempting to perform a task rather than by reading a book or attending a lecture. They multicast, prefer to work alone, accept change readily, and access Information at all ours of the day.These work habits are contrary to what older workers have experienced during their careers. To blend the cultures, managers must devise methods of fostering coexistence. The project-oriented nature of IT work appeals to the bright, creative, energetic millennial, and they perform best when given new technologies and the freedom to experiment. Enjoying new situations and challenges, they excel at mentoring less tech-saws workers on using the Innovative hardware and software and rotating among various departments to meet new people.They also thrive in an atmosphere that encourages blobbing and testing, so the work environment should allow mobile social networking and communications. What are your thoughts? Do you find this to be the case at your place of work? I believe the current increase in new millennial further assist the older population. For example, as a professional in the Education industry the younger generations, in my opinion juggle various tasks. However, I feel the older population can benefit from most millennial by keeping an open mind to technology. Often times many baby boomers become resistant to change.Remotely no adaptation occurs, leading to undue stress of millennial. On another note, millennial may often be underestimated within the workforce due to autonomy. The world has emerged into a new era involving a high demand to remain abreast with frequent changes. I work alongside various baby-boomers and they are never updated with anything. Work By Lange-Wilcox multicast, prefer to work alone, accept change readily, and access information at all they excel at mentoring less tech-savvy workers on using the innovative hardware my opinion Juggle various tasks. Work Introduction In this report, I will draw on theories into my work experience in a local English training school in my hometown, to analysis their communication system, and then make some recommendations to Improve their school performance. Description Last summer, I worked as a registration assistant in a private languages school called Younger; it is a small private English training school, which aims at improving student's overall English ability to get higher score In English Test.Within Younger organization, the formal communication between school leaders and employees that Ely on paper-based format; the informal communication occurs teachers and students that prefer to face-to-face chats. According to the school communication study of Fred C. The formal communication which focuses on exchange the information regarding the work-related of school, and informal communication which emphasizes the unofficial message that unrelated to the schools education activities.For Younger scho ol case, I will draw the classical approach theories to analyses formal communication, and using the culture approach to examine the informal communication. Through the analysis. I will find some problems about Younger' communications, and give them some suggestions, to help them get improvement in the future. Analysis Theory 1 Younger formal communication system between employer and employee is familiar with classic approach. According to Weeper's theory of bureaucracy, rules are priority for each organizational functioning; he believed all rules should be In written form.In Younger, to improve students' English test score in short term, school leaders written specific daily routine and daily objectives to individuals, like when they would wake up, who can take what class and when, and the number of vocabularies students need to memorized each day. Under this system, all things rely on the rules, hierarchy was clearly established and the power was centralized within school leaders. In Younger, the school leaders built policies and communicate downward to group of managers, teachers and then students; this is a typically top-down communication.Managers, teachers and students need to follow their own Instructions, and do not have rights to change anything. Under bureaucracy management, teachers clearly knowing what the school's goals, strategies, and objectives base on deferent rules; having a better understanding of how their Jobs contribute to other school activities Increase employees involvement; following the specific introduction could improve the work efficiency. School leaders have the big power to control and monitor day-to-day operations of school activities.On the other hand, top-down communication is hard to receive the feedback from lower level people, lacking of communication interaction lead to lost opportunities of making improvement. Sometimes, the hierarchy is complicated, some information lost since assistance from the school principal to stu dents. In Tailor's scientific management theory, † there is one best way to do every Job†, which means managers need to fit Job to individuals. Based on this view, Younger principal divided English teaching into three parts: reading, writing and listening, and only hired the people who specialized in one filed.This kind of teaching specializations lowers individual teacher's responsibility for students' test score, reduce working pressure; hired professional experts in that field, it could be provide high quality education services for students, rather more gained Younger' competitive advantages in educational industry. However, Job specialization and teaching followed by instruction reduces the work autonomy and decrease employees' skills, as a consequent, employee felt less passion for their Jobs. Moreover, it is hard to find the potential problems without communication among different course teachers.Theory 2 Through above analysis, we can conclude that Youngster's fo rmal communication system is based on classical approach that tend to be downward, paper based, and task-related. Unlike the vertical communication between the employer and employee, he horizontal communication occurs in teacher and students. Deal and Kennedy's † Strong Cultures†, theory argued that if an organization has a strong culture, it will form the unique, hard to imitate intangible asset for that company, it would improve individual and organizational performance.This theory including four key elements: values and belief, heroes, rites and rituals, and cultural network. Since private languages education is a high competitive industry, Younger attempt to build their own school culture as their core competitive advantages. Younger used their slogan † Stay passion, Stay younger† as their belief to motivate students keep passion in their leaning, school mission aim to build the unique † Younger† sprit to attractive more students.Youngster's p rincipal is their Hero, for each new student orientation, principal gives the speech about how he builds Younger school to encourage student work hard. Both informal and formal communication made contribute to build the culture network. Majority informal communication during the lunchtime, teachers share legend stories to their students. To The top-leaders used downward immunization transfer school values, belief, culture, and school mission to employee and students. It is try to form a sense of belonging, commitment, and proud of being a part of Younger among the employees and students.In summary, for Youngster's culture approach the strength is they build a strong culture connection through their passion values, principal as the legend hero, using both informal and formal communication channel to set the culture network made employees and students felt like school is a big family. Recommendation As I analyzed above, the biggest problem is the highly centralized hierarchy managemen t system cause the weak communication system. To improve Younger communication system, my recommendation is diversify the direction of communication flows is most priority thing.Since analysis of Youngster's structure, we can see the organization structure has influenced on communication system. Lundeberg & Orenstein indicated, the structure of an effective communication Younger now has both downward and horizontal communication, I suggest building an upward flow communication. In the Younger school, upward communication is that some reflection from lower staff to the top leaders, this kind of communication an examine whether the bottom staff understood the messages from top-leaders, also can improve self-esteem of staff.Upward communication flow will make communication more effectiveness, listen more voice from different perspectives, and get more suggestions. In short, upward communication will provide a new communication channel of feedback to top-leaders, and make contribution t o school's performance. We can build the upward communication in three different types, the first type is class evaluation, gave rights to students which evaluate their teacher's caching performance, this help leader to understand how the employees perform their Job.The second one is suggestions and improvement, gathering the ideas from staffs to increase the quality of work. The last type is exception describe the big problems to leader, make leader aware of how difficulties. To build a healthy upward flow communication there are some barriers need to overcome. Firstly, when low- level staffs try to reflect problems but sometimes, the administrators no time to respond. Secondly, the administrator's bad attitudes or ignore the low-level staffs. Thirdly, the long-time gap between communication and reflection, it will take up to several months to accept the low-staffs' suggestion.The last but not least, low-level staffs lacking of motivation to bring problems to the administrator's of fice. There are some solutions to solve above four questions. Firstly, open door and open hours policy. To set a time, the administrator's door open for those people who find some problems need to discuss. Secondly, school leaders can facilitate some consulting meetings to avoid bad attitudes, and also can rebuild the lower-staff confidence. Thirdly, building social media blob for gather problems, reply feedback as soon as possible.Last, setting some rewards for these useful recommendations, encourage low-level staffs give more suggestions. Conclusion In this essay, in the first part I simply describe the Younger communication strategies. In the second part, I draw the classical approach theories to analyses formal communication, and using the culture approach to examine the informal communication in Younger English training school. Through analysis, I can conclude that Youngster's formal communication system is based on classical approach that end to be downward, paper based, and t ask-related. Work Generation Gap When younger workers are hired in the same department as older workers, the results can be frustrating or rewarding. What makes the difference is how management decides to blend the workforces. The 80 million Generation Y workers, called millennial, who were born after 1977 bring a host of talents to the office. They generally are skilled at hands-on, experiential learning and gain skills by attempting to perform a task rather than by reading a book or attending a lecture. They multicast, prefer to work alone, accept change readily, and access Information at all ours of the day.These work habits are contrary to what older workers have experienced during their careers. To blend the cultures, managers must devise methods of fostering coexistence. The project-oriented nature of IT work appeals to the bright, creative, energetic millennial, and they perform best when given new technologies and the freedom to experiment. Enjoying new situations and challenges, they excel at mentoring less tech-saws workers on using the Innovative hardware and software and rotating among various departments to meet new people.They also thrive in an atmosphere that encourages blobbing and testing, so the work environment should allow mobile social networking and communications. What are your thoughts? Do you find this to be the case at your place of work? I believe the current increase in new millennial further assist the older population. For example, as a professional in the Education industry the younger generations, in my opinion juggle various tasks. However, I feel the older population can benefit from most millennial by keeping an open mind to technology. Often times many baby boomers become resistant to change.Remotely no adaptation occurs, leading to undue stress of millennial. On another note, millennial may often be underestimated within the workforce due to autonomy. The world has emerged into a new era involving a high demand to remain abreast with frequent changes. I work alongside various baby-boomers and they are never updated with anything. Work By Lange-Wilcox multicast, prefer to work alone, accept change readily, and access information at all they excel at mentoring less tech-savvy workers on using the innovative hardware my opinion Juggle various tasks.

Brazilian Racial Politics Essay

The reading provided, extracted from Orpheus and Power by Michael George Hanchard, critiques the Race vs. Class Paradigm that is widespread in the Brazilian society. By weaving together some works of the more renowned analysts and sociologists of the topic, he highlights two main things: firstly, the salient points of their claims and secondly, the faults in their arguments. By comparing and contrasting two schools of thought on the issue, Class-based and Structuralist, he points out certain weaknesses and the glaring irreconcilability of such thought when applied to the trends in Brazilian economic society. The subject of Race and Class and their contributions into creating a society wherein oppression has been structured into policy has fueled many debates, much of them still ongoing. While there has not been any theoretical consensus reached, a characteristic that is always attendant in the field of academia, there is however, a fortunate by-product in that it has broadened the body of current knowledge to embrace other topics into the discussion such as modes of production and social inequality. It is also interesting to note that the post-World War II era, as represented by the works of Oliver Cox and Stanley Greenberg, show the minimum agreement between scholars that race, at the very least, plays cuts an integral figure in structuring the oppressive social inequality. This makes for a broader, richer and more interesting scholarly debate. Hanchard begins the comparison with a discussion on Economic Determinism and the study of the Negro population in Brazilian society through the written work of one Florestan Fernandes, Democracia Racial. Fernandes describes the relationship between the â€Å"White elites† and the â€Å"Negroes† in Brazilian society as a situation where the former â€Å"limit themselves to treating the Negro with tolerance, maintaining the old ceremonial politeness in inter-racial relationships and excluding from this tolerance any true egalitarian feeling or content. † (Hanchard 32) By articulating the â€Å"hegemonic position† of the White population over the Black one, he more than hinted at the absence of racial democracy in Brazilian society. Fernandes’ analyzed the racial interaction of the society a pivotal time in economic Brazilian history. The importance of his written work may largely be attributed the perfect timing of it. His deconstructions and analysis of Brazilian society then, through interviews and the gathering of empirical data, did much to further the study of Brazilian racial relations. Moreover, his role and significant importance to the field is further underscored by the fact that he was the first to analyze the linkage between race and class in the context of Brazilian socio-economic development. He claimed that the Brazilian Blacks were â€Å"exploited both during and after slavery by uncaring whites†. However, in a turn-about, he concludes that the Afro-Brazilian is â€Å"dysfunctional, suffering from anomie, hopelessness and immorality† and lacked a sense of discipline and responsibility that made them pale in comparison to Italian immigrants for competition in the labour markets. Hanchard, however, took issue with this particular conclusion and rebutted by emphasing the failure of Fernandes’ missed or misappreciated the important fact that the intervention of big landowners and government officials played a crucial role in creating a marketplace that preferred Southern European immigrants. In essence, Fernandes’ approach fails is that his discussion of the Negro social movement was confined to issues of racial inequality where race itself was autonomous and not an economic variable nor indicator. George Reid Andrews, by using an approach offered by Greenberg, refutes Fernandes’ claims and forwards his own. Andrews’ approach fares better than the previously discussed one of Fernandes’ to the extent that he explored the â€Å"collusion between the state government and landowners to foster economic development† by subsidizing European immigration creating a rocky playing field where the Blacks were the destined losers. He then claims that although slavery played the role of a detrimental catalyst in Brazilian socio-economic development, it is but one of many factors to the displacement of Afro-Brazilian workers. He considered state intervention more critical in that policy itself structured the economic oppression by the doling out of development funds in a very preferential treatment to European immigrant workers. Thus, he introduced a very important aspect into the debates; that of the material dimension of race and how it structures state policies. At this junction, the theoretical wars began to include a different perspective: Structuralist. As the third generation of race relations, this school of thought rebuts and debunks the racial democracy myth proposed by their predecessors. Carlos Hasenblag and Nelson Do Valle Silva are two of the most prominent figures in this approach that does not treat race and class as being on opposing ends of the same spectrum but rather they situated racial inequality at the very heart of socio-economic relations and the development and trends of the labour market. Harchand, however, critically points out that although there was a discussion of racial inequality, there was virtually no explanation offered how such inequality id politically constructed or even contested. â€Å"Despite the conceptual differences between the Reductionists and Structuralists, the tendencies seemed to concur about one crucial dimension of Brazilian race relations; a dimension that seemed to distinguish Afro-Brazilians from their US counterparts: a lack of collective awareness of themselves as a subordinated racial group. † (Hanchard 41) By analyzing the theories at hand, one thing is clear: the need for a better-tailored conceptual framework to be used as a guide for racially equal policy making. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: 1. In an effort to stop the mentality of finger-pointing to the dominant white, what has the different Afro-Brazilian social movements done, or at least attempted to bring about, in order to correct the racial inequality with regard to economic policy and labour markets? 2. What are some concrete state policies, like the Black Economic Empowerment Movement of South Africa, that can correct this historical injustice?